From The Ashes Of The Past: Features Of Early Medieval Culture

The culture of the early medieval period was an exciting, dynamic blend between the traditions of late antiquity and the newly established norms of early Christian doctrine. The term culture can be broken down in many ways, but the most crucial component of these is sharing. Culture works through the sharing of meaning between groups, and therefore through this overarching assessment, culture can be seen to include such things as the shared knowledge, art and power structure of a society, where everyone consciously or otherwise, accepts and understands these established norms in order to adhere to the expectations set out before them. The purpose of this essay is to outline the how and why early medieval culture came to evolve in the way it did, as well as explore the main features that can be attributed to said culture. It can be argued that the importance of religion engulfed all other aspects of culture, and can be seen within all corners of early medieval society, shaping the vast majority of other cultural norms. In this essay, we will firstly analyse the two crucial influences that shaped the culture of the period, that being the influence of past Roman culture, which acted as the archetype through which the major empires and kingdoms of the period shaped their culture, as well as the newly found influence of early Christian culture, which was used in many ways to establish the new societal and hierarchical structures that would come to be recognised as inherently medieval.

THE INFLUENCE OF PAST ROMAN CULTURE:

The early medieval world can be seen as one of transition, and it would be immensely problematic to explore the main features of early medieval culture without first exploring how it came to arise from the collapse of the western Roman Empire. By the beginning of this period of study, the Roman Empire had become fragile and unstable, with Rome finally falling in 476, when the Germanic statesmen Flavius Odoacer deposed the Emperor Romulus Augustulus. Before this, the Roman Empire had united most of Europe under a common rulership, where the cultural standards and expectations may not have been universally shared, but were most definitely devised through common origins. However, once this all-encompassing power was dissolved, a power vacuum was left in its wake. In its place, the east and west were now politically, and thus in many ways culturally, divided, with the eastern Roman Empire able to sustain itself for centuries to come through the Byzantines, while new Germanic kingdoms were able to establish themselves in the west, which would later culminate in the Carolingian Empire. Despite their differences however, the christianisation of the late Roman Empire which arose from the Edict of Milan, meant that the east and west were able to share this shift to Christianity before they splintered off onto their own distinct paths. With all this in mind, it can be seen that although its traditional form and control may have vanished in this period, the cultural impact the Roman Empire had imprinted onto Europe through a millennium of domination remained visible for all to see.

The influence of the Roman world is evident through the structure of the empires and kingdoms that came to arise after its fall, however another key cultural area where its influence can be clearly seen is through the art of the period. For example, the Junius Bassus sarcophagus dating to 359 AD, which depicts comparable stories from the old and new testaments on its exterior, shows the move to Christianity which the Roman Empire was adopting at the time, as this ornate and delicately crafted work of art shows the move away from pagan religion and towards Rome’s christianised future. It also demonstrates an example of how later Christian art would take inspiration from the Romans, as its iconography encapsulates most aspects of the late Roman artistic style. The inscriptions are in latin, the figures depicted are carved in late Roman style, and despite their biblical nature, these figures can also be seen wearing toga-like garments. This sarcophagus’ style thus shares many similarities to previous, pagan works such as the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus, dating to over a hundred years previous and before Rome’s transition and adoption to Christianity. This sarcophagus therefore shows us how once Christianity became the predominant religion in Europe, the traditions and culture of the earlier pagan Romans did not simply vanish overnight and was not too controversial or challenging in the eyes of contemporaries for them to expunge it from society. Therefore, through their artwork, it can be seen that the culture of the early medieval world did not simply restart in a completely new and revolutionary framework, but through all aspects of society and culture, continued to look to the Roman Empire for inspiration, and thus made it one of the main influences on early medieval culture.

THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY CHRISTIAN CULTURE:

Although as we have explored, the people of the early medieval period did not shy away from being influenced by Rome, the influence of early Christian culture is arguably just as important a feature for early medieval culture, as the two worked in tandem with one another in order to create the societies of the early medieval world. It can be argued that because of Rome’s historically laissez faire attitude towards other religions within its originally pagan empire, this provided the perfect basis for early Christianity to take a foothold in Europe, as it gave early missionaries the ability to travel across an immensely connected empire and contact different peoples that were more open and accepting of different religious ideas and practices. It can be said that if Christianity had gained prominence in a world where a less religiously tolerant Empire ruled, then it would have most likely been snuffed out in its inception. The fact that it was not, and was instead able to rise above the established religious norms of the empire, is an example of the two concepts working in tandem, as through pre-Christian Rome’s culture, Christianity was able to imbed itself in the hearts and minds of the people, and create the fusion of cultures that arose in the early medieval period. Thus, it is hard to argue against the fact that Christianity embedded itself within all aspects of culture within this period, and we must now turn our attention to more specific features of culture in the early medieval period to see this in action.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION AND RITUALS:

As was stated in the introduction and was reinforced in the first two sections highlighting the influences on early medieval culture, the overarching feature of early medieval culture was the emphasis on religion in this period. It was a feature of life that was ever-present for all in society, be it the emperors and kings or the peasants and common people. It was also a feature that helped to establish and maintain the strict hierarchies and structures that characterised the period, with many examples of shared practises and expectations that will be explored later in the essay. Firstly however, it is important to analyse the distinctions between religion and magic in the early medieval period, as it is easy to confuse the two, with the lines between them being one that often appears blurry and muddled to non-contemporaries, and one without common agreement even between the peoples of its own time. There were many groups of people who supposedly practiced magic in the early medieval period, with wrestlers, entertainers, prostitutes and even clergyman all either openly practicing magic or at least being accused of this.

However, it is clear to see from our sources, such as Agobard’s text, that magic was denounced in Christian society. Nevertheless, it appears that it was common practice for people to consult magicians in times of hardship, be it a storm-maker to summon rain, or a wisewoman to apply incantations upon the sick, showing that even despite the dominance of Christian doctrine, contemporaries were still partial to pagan-like solutions, which reinforces the idea of this as a transitional age. Agobard, the archbishop of Lyon and writer in the Carolingian renovatio, reinforces this idea when he states ‘Christians now believe things so absurd that no one ever before could persuade pagans to believe,’ demonstrating that although the people in power enforced a strict regime of Christian belief onto their subjects, the old ways of alternative superstitions were not as easily wiped out as it may seem, as they were alive even in Agobard’s time of the ninth century and near the end of this period.

This begs the question as to why Christian religion was seen so differently to magic, as many such as the clergyman mentioned earlier, claimed to be in accordance with Christian teachings while being accused and denounced as magicians by their rivals. It appears as though it was a rather simple process to convince common people of the time that any given practice, such as uttering incantations, was Christian in nature or even the complete opposite, as there are many discussions that attempt to decipher the differences between the two. A rather simple principle that can arguably be used to help with this problem, is the claim that anything supernatural or otherwise, that is done through God's power and in God’s name, was acceptable in early medieval society, whereas any who claimed to be able to summon said power through other means, or even through themselves, was to be considered against the teachings of Christianity and denounced as a heretic. This distinction appears to be a common feature in early medieval culture, and one that attempts to tie up the loose ends surrounding this problem, while at the same time showing us just how universal questions surrounding religion in this period truly were.

Be that as it may, the Christian ritual practises adopted by early medieval culture demonstrate not only a commonality with previous religious practises that took place under the Roman Empire, but also act as enticing examples of how this feature in early medieval culture reinforced societal structures. Rituals were where strict hierarchies established outside of religion were reinforced and the celebration of mass acts as a perfect example of this, with Althoff claiming that there was a hidden truth behind rituals in this period, where underlying messages of dominance occurred. Mass would include ceremonial standards, where everyone would be expected to enter and sit in the order coinciding with their place in society, while at the same time there were many examples of non-verbal demonstrations of hierarchies, such as genuflection. Another excellent example of similar social expectations occurs in Notker’s Life of Charlemagne, where he states that everyone in the palace was an exceptional reader, despite in some cases having no bearing as to the meaning of what they read, so that they could read and chant in the choir to the correct standard while in the company of Charlemagne. Both these examples of common rituals in early medieval society demonstrate the almost over-bearing importance of social order and rank, as well as show a culture that was charged with derooted expectations upon everyone to complete their role correctly in order to remain an active part in said society. Therefore, rituals and religion in general can be seen as a major feature of early medieval culture, and one that shines through in other aspects of life.

THE IMPORTANCE OF COURTLY AND POLITICAL CULTURE:

Courtly culture and political culture more broadly, were vital to the workings of early medieval society, and as Stofferahn puts it, were all about expectations and limitations on acceptable behaviour, while at the same time demonstrating the power structures of the church and state. Political culture therefore, was intrinsically linked to the church and state religion during this time period, as is shown especially well in the San Vitale mosaic at Ravenna, where the emperor of the Byzantine Empire, Justinian, is depicted alongside the Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna as well as several other clergymen. Justinian is wearing a crown, showing his status as Emperor and therefore the unmatched influence he holds in Byzantine culture, but as well as this he is also seen with a halo atop his head, thus blending his secular and religious nature and showing a duality between them. Although Justinian is centred in the mosaic, it is hard to tell who out of himself and Maximianus is standing in front of the other, as Maximianus’ feet land in front of Justinian’s, while at the same time his elbow rests behind him. This trickery of perspective and the ambiguity it generates can be argued to be extremely deliberate, as it shows the synergy between the church and ruling government, with neither seeming to be more or less vital than the other.

This mosaic was found at Ravenna, which by the time of its consecration in 547, had become the western capital of the Roman Empire, replacing Rome which had declined in significance by this period. Ravenna was now the political centre in the west and thus this mosaic was commissioned to reinforce Justinian’s political ambitions by aligning them with the predestined history of the Christian tradition. It is no coincidence therefore, that this very same ideology can be used to explain why after the Nika Riots and the destruction of Constantinople, Justinian chose to create the largest and most elaborately adorned church ever built in the Hagia Sophia, as this would allow Constantinople to be seen as the capital of the Christian faith and regain the support of those who doubted Justinian’s right to rule. Here once again, religion and political authority are intrinsically linked and through this it can be argued religion became a platform to allow those in power to emphasise their political prowess, with this acting as a key feature in political culture in the early medieval period.

As for more western views of political culture, Einhard, the Frankish scholar and courtier who we rely so heavily upon for understanding the reign of Charlemagne, demonstrates some key examples for the workings of politics in Carolingian society. It appears from Einhard that gift giving and positive foreign relations were important to Charlemagne, as he supposedly sent ambassadors to the site of Christ’s resurrection while they were on the way to offering gifts to the King of Persia. As well as this, Einhard writes that the Byzantines were eager to establish friendly relations with the King of the Franks, and when he took the title of Emperor himself, rather than cutting ties with his Kingdom, the Byzantines made a close alliance with him so that he would have ‘no cause of offence.’ It is possible that Einhard is strategically placing Charlemagne in the dominant position in this exchange to bolster his prestige, however here we can learn much about foreign policy in the early medieval Christian world, as these examples demonstrate that because of their religious commonality during this period, these states that had clear grounds for a rivalry due to their individual links to Rome, felt more inclined to stay somewhat unified. Netker reinforces the political importance of gift-giving and patronage when he states that it was courtly practice to ‘make presents’ to all who did duty in the royal court on the day when Christ cast away his mortal body. With all this in mind, it appears that gift giving, especially when conducted under religious means, was a prominent feature in both courtly and political culture more generally during the early medieval period.

Another important point to make regarding Einhard’s work is not only the religious influence that is very clearly scattered throughout it, but also the Roman influence that is evident in his writing style. He quite clearly bases the structure and contents of his work on that of the Roman biographer Suetonius, who wrote the Twelve Caesars in the first century AD, with features such as the description of Charlemagne’s appearance and lesser known private life both harking back to Suetonius' work. It can be said that this style of biography helps to better preserve a person’s character, and preserves a more intimate analysis of their reign for future generations to study. By taking such heavy inspiration from one of history's most influential Roman imperial writers, Einhard further demonstrates the immense influence that the Roman Empire had on early medieval culture, as it can be seen that because of this imitation, Rome was still seen as the best archetype for a sophisticated civilisation to follow in all ways, including history writing, and thus shows just how important Rome’s influence was as a feature of early medieval culture.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE EARLY MEDIEVAL BOOK AND LITERARY PRODUCTION:

Another crucial feature of early medieval culture was the heavy importance placed upon literary production and the early medieval book. In this period, the art of literacy and book learning became a staple aspect of elite education, and the idea of the book became, as Smith puts it, ‘a technology of power.’ It is important however when discussing literacy in this time, to not confuse it with more modern definitions of literacy, as it can easily lead to unfairly blending different practises into the same categories. Therefore, here we shall discuss how book production and literacy played such a pivotal role in religious prominence and how, much like the artwork and rituals discussed previously, they were used to embed social order and hierarchical structures.

In the Byzantine world, Procopius’ works The Wars and The Buildings can be used to show the emphasis and importance placed upon the written word during Justinian’s reign. Procopius is key to our understanding of the age of Justinian, and in these books he writes detailed accounts of the campaigns of reconquest which Belisarius undertook, as well as the extensive building program which Justinian enacted throughout the empire. These act as a testament to the culture around recording and documenting achievements during the early medieval period. These combine with Justinian’s own legislatory writings such as the Codex or the Digest to show that during this period, by recording these achievements in such a concise and meticulously detailed fashion, the order and structure described within them translates into the wider culture and thus cements both a leader’s legacy, and also their current tenure in power.

As for the west, the Carolingian renovatio also saw a vast rise in book production, especially through the monasteries, and it can be argued that this was the most important reason why the unique nature of book production arose in the manner it did during the early medieval period. Monastery monks spent vast amounts of their time producing books in Carolingian society, and this is one of the main reasons this period is often considered a renaissance, as through their prolific production, literary knowledge and religious thought became both common and expected in high society culture. This also links back to the ever-present significance of religion as a power structure, as monasteries came to be to most illustrious places of learning within society, and so both education and religion became almost synonymous with each other because of this and became the benchmark for a thriving civilisation. By the richer and most pious in society being the main people with access to knowledge, it meant that therefore this religious prominence became hierarchical and was therefore used to control the culture of the period, thus making it a major feature of said culture.

CONCLUSION:

The most important features of early medieval culture, be it the importance of rituals, the highly structured political and courtly culture, or even the significance of literary production, all harbour connections with Christianity as well as the influence of past Roman culture. However it can be seen that religion was the most integral feature of early medieval culture, as we have seen how religion was present in all other aspects of the culture and set the standards and expectations through which all others were confined within. While at the same time, it can be argued that the heavy emphasis on religious doctrine helped to pave the way and mold what came to be known as the early medieval period, because it was so ingrained in all manner of ritualistic, hierarchical and educational practises, to the point that early medieval culture would appear unrecognisable without its remarkable influence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

SECONDARY SCHOLARSHIP:

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Previté Orton, C.W., 1915. “Review: Einhard’s Life of Charlemagne by H. W. Garrod, R. B. Mowat,” The Classical Review 29, no. 6, 186–88.

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Stofferahn, S.A., 2010. “Resonance and Discord: An Early Medieval Reconsideration of Political Culture.” Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 36, no. 1, 4–16.

PRIMARY SOURCES:

Agobard of Lyons, On Hail and Thunder.

Einhard, The Life of Charlemagne.

Galerius and Constantine, Edicts of Toleration 311/313.

Justinian, The Codex and The Digest.

Notker, The Life of Charlemagne.   

Procopius of Caesarea, The Wars and The Buildings.