Ideologies Of Rulership In Celtic Myth

The mythologies of Ireland and Wales are ones brimming with fruitful examples of rulership. There are many tales that boast characters that encapsulate what it meant to be a successful leader within the Celtic tradition, and thus from these we can deduce what was viewed as a successful leader in the eyes of those who told said tales. This essay will be segregated into distinct subsections so that we may attempt to answer some of the key questions and areas surrounding Celtic leadership, as well as gain a better understanding of the vital ingredients that made up the ideology of rulership within medieval Irish and Welsh mythological texts. These subsections will include; what made an effective ruler in Celtic myth, how did said ruler garner their authority, and lastly, how did they use this authority to exert their power over others. Through analysing these pressing points, this essay aims to demonstrate how above all other factors, it can be seen that a ruler’s divine nature was their most vital characteristic and that through their otherworldly lineage and abilities, they were able to establish their control over others.

WHAT MAKES AN EFFECTIVE RULER:

There are numerous examples from both Irish and Welsh myth that can be used to illustrate the characteristics that make an effective ruler, while at the same time there are many to show an example of the reverse, demonstrating a leader that is wholly ineffective at ruling their domain. However, it is arguably more productive to choose examples of stories where effective and ineffective leaders interact with one another directly, as we can see how the two differ in a more succinct, refined manner and without differing external contexts that would take away from any analysis. As will be shown through these examples, effective rulers seem to be able to either take advantage of an ineffectual counterpart's ineptitude for their, and their peoples, own gain, or alternatively they could lead by example and through their superior leadership, aim to bridge the gap between themselves and less effective rulers.

In the case of Irish myth, there is no better example demonstrating the difference between effective and ineffective rulers than in The Wooing of Etain, where the Dagda completely outwits Elcmar, king of Bruig, when not only bearing a child with his wife without his knowledge, but also tricking him out of his kingdom altogether. The Dagda is one of the most influential gods in all of Irish mythology, and a leader of the Tuatha De Danann, making him a powerful and ancient deity. Elcmar, likewise, also belonged to the Tuatha De Danann and so to at least some extent shares this otherworldly power and influence with the Dagda, placing them on a somewhat even footing. However despite this, the Dagda exerts his will and domination over Elcmar, and all others for that matter, as he is able to plot and scheme effectively, while coercing others to appease his wishes. This is shown when he sends Elcmar away from his own homestead so that he can sleep with his wife Boann and bear his child Oengus, all in time for him to completely conceal this fact from Elcmar upon his return.

From this we can deduce that to be an effective ruler in Irish myth one had to be ambitious, while at the same time cunning enough to achieve said ambitions. On the reverse, an ineffective leader, in this case Elcmar, demonstrates a complete lack of control over their subject’s as well as their own fate, following the whims of others while being completely oblivious to the true nature of what is occurring around them, thus showing no control over the situations they find themselves in. Another example that demonstrates this comes later in The Wooing of Etain, when the Dagda tells his son Oengus how to trick Elcmar out of his kingdom, by convincing Elcmar into giving his kingdom to Oengus for a day and a night, knowing that this would enable him to take control of Bruig indefinitely, as through his careful choice of words, it can be seen that it is only through days and nights that the world passes. This again shows the Dagda’s shrewd and manipulating nature, where he pulls the strings around him, allowing him to exert his power effectively, while at the same time it acts as another example of Elcmar’s complete lack of foresight, planning and general ineffectiveness. However, it is vital to remember that these examples also demonstrate just how crucial the Dagda’s divine nature was in making him an effective ruler, as without his supernatural powers, he would not have been able to display this tactful control over the world around him.

As for an example of an effective and ineffective ruler within Welsh myth, the Second Branch of the Mabinogi relays to us the relationship and disputes between Bendigeidfran, the mythical giant-king of all Britain, and Matholwch, king of Ireland. After establishing an alliance between their two kingdoms, Bendigeidfran’s war-mongering brother Efnysien insults Matholwch by maiming his horses, without the consent of his kingly brother. Rather than simply confronting his fellow king about the issue to gather all the information he needs to make an effective next move, Matholwch lets his emotions get the better of him and returns to his ship, knowing this would end the alliance he had worked to establish. It takes Bendigeidfran’s initiative to quickly realise this and use his effective skills of persuasion to make amends, offering Matholwch silver and replacements for the maimed horses and even increasing his offer of recompense when Matholwch remains saddened after the initial offer. In this way, he is both fair and effectively honours his promises and thus demonstrates effective leadership.

This tale shows us some key elements of effective rulership, as Bendigeidfran knows that he and his people would benefit greatly from an alliance with Ireland and so decerns it worthwhile to exert the added effort when bringing it to fruition. He also acts swiftly in his shrewd decision making, while his ineffective kingly counterpart lets emotion dictate his actions when almost allowing a simple misunderstanding to result in an unfavourable outcome. With all this in mind, it can be argued that through The Wooing of Etain and The Mabinogi, we can see that effective rulership in Celtic texts hinged on otherworldly leaders enacting control over their surroundings and dictating other’s behaviour. Be it through using their mythological abilities to take advantage of another's weakness, such as in the case of the Dagda, or by quickly correcting another’s mistakes, like in Bendigeidfran’s case, shrewd thought and effective coercion were vital in the ideology of rulership.

WHAT GIVES A RULER AUTHORITY:

The next crucial area to explore in regards to mythological rulership is how and from where a ruler comes by their authority. It can be argued that within the medieval Celtic texts, there are two main areas where authority originates, with one being a figure's inherent divine nature and birth, and the other being the great deeds which they have achieved throughout their life. In regards to divine birth, there are countless examples across the texts that display a ruler's origins in this way, for example Oengus, who we have already touched upon earlier. He is born of the Dagda, the god-king often associated with strength and wisdom, and Boann, the river goddess. By having not one, but two divine parents, Oengus arguably has a predestined excellence, and one that gives him a right to rule. The very meaning of the term Dagda is ‘good god,’ as in a competent god, which again reinforces this idea of Oengus’ father as an exemplar for rulership. Within The Mabinogion, Lleu Llaw Gyffes also has a divine birth that although is a bit more obscure, grants him supernatural abilities such as near invincibility and thus gives him a similar mythical destiny that allows him to mature faster and have the authority to take up rulership.

As for accomplishing great deeds, examples like Cú Chulainn and Pwyll can be used, as both these men garner further authority because of the aura established around them through their works. Through The Wasting Sickness of Cú Chulainn, Cú Chualainn is attacked and cursed by otherworldly creatures and must go through a heroic odyssey to right the wrongs of his past, while in the First Branch of the Mabinogi, Pwyll also conscientiously corrects the arrogance in his past by helping King Arawn get rid of his enemies. In both these cases, these men’s prestige and authority is increased because of their exploits and despite their already supernatural origins, they both actively participate in furthering their standing in their respective societies. This actively increases their authority and thus makes others more inclined to follow them, meaning that they can use this newfound authority to establish themselves as heroic rulers.

HOW A RULER INTERACTS WITH THEIR SUBJECTS:

In regards to rulership, the last pivotal area this essay will cover is how a ruler should properly interact with their family, other elites and their subjects within Celtic myth. In The Dream of Oengus, the Dagda shows his unbridled devotion towards his son when he has scouts scour all of Eriu in search of Oengus’ love and thus we see just how important it was for a mythological leader to maintain familial ties whilst also remaining in control at the top of their hierarchy. Once Oengus’ love is found, The Dagda and Ailill, king of Connacht go to war with Ethal Anbuail, as he refuses to give his daughter to the son of the Dagda. Here however, Ethal admits that his daughter is more powerful than himself, and so because he has no control over his family affairs, he eventually loses the lives of many of his subjects and misfortune befalls him. With this in mind, it can be argued that a good mythological leader must use their otherworldly power to garner loyalty from their subjects, whilst also making sure that their own household is in order and under control, as is the case for the Dagda. It may be said that once this rule is flouted however, such as in Ethal’s case, a ruler can no longer hold authority over their destiny, and thus his kingdom will be at the mercy of others and consequently suffer hardships due to this lack of leadership.

As well as showing both control over and devotion to one’s family, it can be argued that a leader of Celtic myth must also stay vigilant to potential betrayal. An example of a leader failing in this regard comes in the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi, when Lleu’s wife Blodeuedd and her love Penllyn secretly plot to kill him while he is blissfully unaware. Blodeuedd is even able to get Lleu to disclose the only way that his otherworldly form can be killed without an ounce of suspicion on his part, which shows the lack of shrewdness and cunning wit that is usually present within good mythological leaders. The only reason the plot is unsuccessful is because of his wife’s ignorance on the account of her own mythical origins, however her fate is poetic as she is turned into a bird that will be forever hostile to other such creatures, which harks back to Blodeuwedd’s name denoting an owl. However, it is not Lleu that enacts this punishment upon her and thus it would be hard to argue that this shows the rulership skills fitting for redemption of his initial oversight. Thus in regard to alertness and trust, Lleu can be used as an example of how a poor ruler interacts with those around them.

However, an example of a competent leader enacting their own fitting punishments after betrayal comes earlier in the same branch, when Math takes revenge for the rape of his niece Goewin by turning his two nephews who were responsible into animals for three consecutive years. They are forced to mate and have offspring against their will, shaming them into an act of incest, as well as forcing them to experience the horror which they themselves had forced upon another, further framing this punishment to fit the crime. This is a great example of how a leader, according to Celtic myth, should act when betrayed by those closest to them, as he is selfless in putting retribution for Goewin above his own needs, and thus shows the same admirable loyalty displayed by the Dagba towards his son Oengus. As well as this, by using his supernatural powers to turn his nephews into animals, he re-establishes control over his household by punishing a close betrayal, and thus sets a commanding example and demonstrates the leadership skills needed when a ruler interacts with their family, other elites and their subjects within Celtic mythology.

CONCLUSION:

To conclude, as has been shown throughout this essay, the ideology of rulership as it appears in medieval Irish and Welsh texts is one that is multifaceted and nuanced, and one which requires its rulers to not only act effectively at all times, but also garner authority and influence from both factors inside and outside of their control. However, as shown throughout, the most vital component to good rulership in Celtic texts boils down to how effectively a given ruler can use their predetermined divinity to establish dominance and control over those around them. This control allows them to nurture their own prestige and control their own destiny, while at the same time gives them the platform to manipulate the world around them and mould their surroundings to their liking. With all these factors in mind, it can be argued that control through the supernatural is the key to rulership in Celtic mythological texts.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
SECONDARY SCHOLARSHIP:

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PRIMARY SOURCES:

The Dream of Oengus, Jeffrey Gantz translation, Early Irish Sagas.

The Wasting Sickness of Cú Chulainn, Jeffrey Gantz translation, Early Irish Sagas.

The Wooing of Etain, Jeffrey Gantz translation, Early Irish Sagas.

The First Branch of the Mabinogi, Sioned Davies translation, The Mabinogion.

The Second Branch of the Mabinogi, Sioned Davies translation, The Mabinogion.

The Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi, Sioned Davies translation, The Mabinogion.